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The History of American Indian Turquoise Jewelry
Indian turquoise jewelry, as it is known today, had origins that probably predate the advent of the persons we describe as American Indians or Native Americans. However, for the purpose of this paper we will consider prehistoric man as prehistoric Indian. Archeological evidence shows us that stones (including turquoise), shells and fetishes predate the Christian (epoch). Turquoise was found in Hohokam excavations in southern Arizona that date 200 B.C., in central Mexico approximately 600-700 B.C. and in South America ca. 900 B.C. Other beads are even earlier. As Indian jewelry and turquoise are so closely associated this paper will discuss both.
Turquoise as a mineral deposit is isolated to a rather limited geographical area in the southwestern United States. Some is found in Mexico but very little and there are some deposits in western South America. We will concentrate on that found in the United States.
Prehistoric Indians mined turquoise and turned this product into jewelry, primarily drilled beads and other hanging ornaments. However, archeological findings do include applique on shell and other rock which means that it was probably used with wood for ear decoration as well (the wood would have deteriorated.) Extensive evidence of prehistoric mining operations have been found in several areas to include: The Cerillos and Burro Mountain regions of New Mexico, the Kingman and Morenci regions of Arizona and the Conejos area of Colorado. Turquoise jewelry found in southern Mexico and in excavated mounds east of the Mississippi have been analyzed and proclaimed to be from New Mexico's Cerillos mining area. As this article deals with our Southwest other mining localities are not discussed. Turquoise jewelry and turquoise jewelry
Turquoise, although dominant in the jewelry finds (for example several thousand pieces of turquoise were found in Chaco Canyon), it is not the only important jewelry find. The spiny oyster shell (Spondylus Princeps) is found in only one area in the Western Hemisphere- off the coast of Baja California. This shell has been found in abundance in archeological excavations of the Anasazi, Mogollon and Hohokam of the desert southwest. It has also been found in the same eastern mound excavations in which turquoise was also found. These finds not only prove early man and prehistoric man's interest and use of jewelry but it reveals important economic information. It shows the existence of trading in his lifestyle. It also provides a glimpse into probable status levels of the people.
One might argue that the above has little to do with the development of Indian jewelry as we know it. However, as some (the Hopi and Pueblo cultures of the Rio Grande) are indeed descended from the Anasazi and many believe from the Mogollon and Mimbres as well, it seems to be a valid beginning of a historic tracing. The Navajo, on the other hand, entered the area fairly recently. Some say as early as the 14th century, others, as late as the early 16th. The Navajo, whenever they arrived, had to be influenced by the existing Pueblo cultures and later were profoundly influenced by the early Spanish. It is the hypothesis of this writer that a study of the Navajo will give one the best historical trial for the development of Indian jewelry in the Southwest. The Navajo, as we will see, were instrumental in the spread of this craft to other southwestern tribes.
The Navajo must be considered nomadic within their "Dinetah" or homeland. They were farmers only to the extent that they would plant a crop, leave it to the vagaries of the weather and eventually return to reap the harvest, if any. They and their Apache cousins could be likened to the early Mongols of the 12th and 13th centuries. They not only raided but also took, kept and developed that of the conquered that suited them. Beaded necklaces as a symbol of prestige, decorated "ketoh" or bow guards and concha (concho) likely originated with their most frequent contacts, the Spanish and their Pueblo neighbors.
The Navajo were in constant contact, some hostile, some friendly, with the Spanish as they continued to populate the Southwest from the late 16th century on. From these people the Indians developed a great appreciation for personal adornment. Some of the early Spanish designs such as the Moorish inspired crescent and the pomegranate blossom became key to Navajo jewelry design (More on this later in the discussion of the origin of the Squash Blossom Necklace.)
In time the Spanish became dominant in the area. Although raids continued into the 19th century, the period was better described as one of "suspicious-cautious co- existence." It was a 200 plus year period of close association and the sharing of the best of the several cultures. The Navajo wore the ornaments of those they conquered or from trade with those they could not beat. These were made from German silver (a copper-nickel-zinc substance) that was bright and wore well, to copper, brass and to a much lesser extent, silver. They learned to appreciate and hold dear the symbols of their prowess or their wealth. (No doubt early Navajo wearing of a cross or the crescent shaped naja on a rawhide necklace did not reflect their appreciation for Christianity or for the Moorish influence on the Spanish.) Rather it was simply an ornament of beauty and pride. And, if one person had one, others wanted one also and if possible, something even better. Thus the pendent cross evolved as did the naja into a multitude of variations and blending's. The simple thong on which they were displayed gave way to stone, shell, silver or other metal beads.
The studies regarding the actual date that the Navajo began making silver jewelry vary. The two best works are by John Adair and subsequent research and writings by Carl Rosnek and Joseph Stacy (see suggested reading list.) All seem to agree that Atsidi Sani (Old Smith) was the accepted first Navajo silversmith. He learned the blacksmith trade in the early 1850's and possibly even dabbled in silver in the early 1860's.
After much warfare, the warlike Navajo were captured by the United States Cavalry and marched into captivity in 1864. Approximately 8000, to include Atsidi Sani, were sent to Ft. Sumner in eastern New Mexico where they were to be weaned from a nomadic and warlike lifestyle and taught to be farmers. The experiment failed and in 1868 they were returned to the four corners area, the "Dinetah." Although this date 1868 is accepted by many, to include the great Navajo leader of the time, Chee Dodge, as the year Atsidi Sani learned the silver making skills, there is evidence that this is not wholly correct. There is a tantalizing comment by a Major Henry Wallen, the Commandant of Ft. Sumner in 1864. "Some of them are quite clever as silversmiths." Of course he may have mistaken German silver for "real silver." In any event Atsidi Sani wears the mantle as the first Navajo silversmith.
The early Navajo silver work concentrated on concha (concho) belts, bracelets, bow guards, tobacco flasks and necklaces. Rings, earrings, pins, hair ornaments, buckles and bolos evolved from these. A full line of silver jewelry existed throughout the reservation by the 1880's.
The earliest Navajo work consisted of hammered work with file decoration. Turquoise, a very popular and much respected stone by the Navajo, made its appearance in silver jewelry ca. 1880. It is important to note that turquoise, as a jewelry item, had existed for centuries. It had been used in combination with other stones, shells and metals long before 1880. However, the early Indian glued or otherwise attached the turquoise to the stone, shell or metal. It is known that Mexican silversmiths (plateros) toured the Indian pueblos and Navajo enclaves in the early-mid 1800's selling and trading silver jewelry for Indian products. This is the likely origin of silver ornamentation in the Indian possession prior to ca. 1860. It is fairly certain that there was no indigenous Navajo or pueblo silver industry.
Early Navajo smiths used Mexican and US coins for their silver. Often if they were given a special order from a trader or local rancher or businessman they would receive silver in the form of candlesticks, tea pots, etc. to melt for their work. The Navajo preferred to use melted Mexican silver coins as they were the easiest to work (.90275 fine.) Next preferred was what ever sterling silver was available (.9025 fine.) Least desirable but the most durable was silver from melted US coins (.900 fine.) The latter was the most readily available source. In 1890 the United States made it unlawful to melt of deface (such as soldering on hooks, eyes, jump rings or "doming" coins for beads.) As this was difficult to enforce, United States coinage continued to be used in the developing Navajo silver industry. Now that there was a demand for materials and tools the reservation traders began to stock many of the needed items. Although the Navajo were able to make a flux out of native materials, the commercial flux was superior. Cutting, grinding and fine polishing materials were commercially more desirable than home made ones. This was the beginning of a new economy involving the Indians, traders and eastern suppliers.
Very shortly, following Atsidi Sani's beginning Navajo silver smithing, the craft spread across the area. He taught his sons and they taught others. The craft made its appearance in Zuni ca. 1872. Atsidi Chon (Ugly Smith) taught his close Zuni friend, Lanyade, the skills. The Zuni were already skilled in metal working making items in copper, brass and iron. Research shows that a forge existed in Zuni in 1852. It is reported (see Rosneck and Stacy) that Lanyade paid Atsidi Chon "one good horse" for his instruction.
Lanyade learned the trade well. He began touring the various pueblos selling his jewelry. While on Hopi First Mesa at Sichomovi, he taught the first Hopi silversmith, Sikyatala, the skills. As Lanyade was taught by a Navajo and the Hopi taught by Lanyade all the jewelry of the period was Navajo in style. As a side note this is why provenance (history of origin-ownership) is so important for 19th century jewelry in properly identifying its origin. It's too easy to say that because it looks like Navajo work it is therefore of Navajo origin.
During these early years the use of solder was learned and developed. Accompanying this was the skills of making silver dies. The former permitted the artistic and permanent joining of two or more metal pieces resulting in a multitude of design possibilities and the setting of stones. Die making was probably adopted from the many leather tooling dies that existed and were used by Spanish, Mexican and later Indians in both leather work as well as tin smithing.
As the years progressed the styles that were basically of Navajo origin were gradually modified by their pueblo students. For example: the Zuni, since prehistoric times, were excellent lapidaries. These skills slowly changed their work to the fine inlay and channel inlay we have come to associate with them. However, the Hopi change occurred a bit more abruptly. In 1938 the Museum of Northern Arizona in Flagstaff, Arizona, working with Hopi silversmiths, Paul Saufkie and Fred Kabote, began a program of developing a style that was exclusively Hopi. The work was interrupted by World War II. Following the war a government grant helped a silversmith training program with the Hopi Guild. The "overlay" technique they created involved the cutting of designs in a heavy gauge silver sheet and then soldering this to a solid silver sheet. The designs were usually adapted from the pottery shards found in the Sikyatki Pueblo ruins of the 15th and 16th centuries. These pre-Hopi designs were mostly bird motifs. The Hopi Guild also used kachina symbols, animal and clan motifs.
Today's Indian silversmiths are in many cases also goldsmiths and lapidaries as well. They cross tribal design boundaries with a will and with abandon. No longer can one look at a piece and say "It's Zuni style so it must be Zuni made." The artist of today may incorporate in a single piece all the styles available as well as his or her own innovation. Indian jewelry today transcends tribal styles.
The Squash Blossom Necklace
When Indian jewelry is mention the symbol that pops to mind is the squash blossom necklace. It is the cornerstone of most Indian jewelry collections. However, most people owning one or more pieces have no idea of its origin or meaning. The following may help one to appreciate more fully this striking piece of jewelry.This particular art object is truly an Indian creation. However, it developed slowly and has roots deep in non Indian culture and history. The principle part of the necklace is the crescent shaped pendent. This was first seen by the Southwestern Indian as iron ornaments on the horse bridles of the Spanish Conquistadors in the late 1500's and early 1600's. Captured or traded for, these ornaments soon graced the necks of the local Indian populace. Their acquisition was a matter of pride and the ornament was reproduced in the various metals and was proudly displayed during ceremonials. These crescent shaped pendants, originally brought from Spain, reflected the influence of earlier Moorish conquests and the occupation of Spain. As generations came and went, the pendent, referred to as a najahe or naja, became symbolic with the various ceremonials. As most ceremonials were related to the agricultural cycle the naja was associated with crop fertility.
Once silver beads came into fashion around 1880 what more logical place was there to display the naja than on this string of beads? The earlier acquired naja's were undoubtedly hung around the owners neck by a simple thong.
The first beads were large, un ornamental and round. From these, more complicated ones developed, such as fluted beads and oval beads. Often dimes and quarters were fastened to a silver shank and strung between the beads. Occasionally these coins were domed, filled and made into beads.
The necklace referred to today as the Squash Blossom necklace probably didn't originate much before 1880. This is taken from the fact that Washington Mathews did not mention this type of jewelry in his "Navajo Silversmiths" Second Annual Report, 1880-81. Arthur Woodard, in 1938, pointed out that the Navajo and Zuni beads were originally Spanish-Mexican trouser and jacket ornaments which were fashioned to resemble the pomegranate. The pomegranate was a common Spanish decorator motif, often seen carved or painted on missions in Mexico and often a clothing decoration. If one examined an early Navajo "squash blossom" bead, a striking similarity would be seen to exist between the Mexican ornament and the pomegranate Still, in spite of the similarities, there is quite a bit of doubt that the Navajo attempted to depict this blossom in his bead. The Navajo word for the "squash blossom" bead is "yo ne maze disya gi" which means simply "bead that spreads out." Nothing in the word denoted squash or pomegranate blossom. Perhaps the word was coined by a white man who, asking a Navajo what the bead represented, (the white man is obsessed with what something means, he is rarely satisfied that something is simply attractive) was told that it looked like a squash blossom (the Navajo understands the white man's obsession and often attempts to satisfy it as painlessly as possible.) It is doubtful that the Navajo intended that the bead represent the squash blossom.
Because the Indian ceremonials largely dealt with the agricultural cycle, and the first jewelry was worn during these occasions, coupled with the fact that the beads along with the chain looked like pomegranates or squash blossoms, all have tended to portray the necklace in a crop-fertility ceremonial light.
The squash blossom necklace serves as a reminder of the close interaction between the Pueblo and Navajo Indians since the mid-1800's. The necklace itself is Navajo, adopted by the Zuni. Yet the incorporation of turquoise on each of the blossoms is an advent of the Zuni later adopted by the Navajo.
This brief summary is the author's considered judgment on a subject that has little historical documentation. Undoubtedly there are some solid truths, particularly from the crop fertility standpoint, but equally true is the existence of merely extrapolated conclusions.
Turquoise in Indian Jewelry
In our earlier presentation "Turquoise, A Brief Overview and History" printed, November 1992, the history of turquoise worldwide was discussed. We also covered its occurrence, physical properties, various qualities, grades and a discussion of what can and has been done to turquoise to improve its appearance and durability. We highlighted not only stabilizing techniques and treating techniques but also mentioned fake and synthetic turquoise.Turquoise, as mentioned earlier has been native to jewelry in the Southwest for over 2000 years. Then, as now the stone was deeply appreciated and held in much reverence. No doubt the prehistoric Indians as well as the ancestors of our current Native Americans ascribed a multitude of properties to this stone. For example:
-The Pima of southern Arizona- Turquoise was a talisman of good fortune and strength to renounce ailments. However, if you lost a turquoise you would be afflicted by a physical ailment treatable only by a medicine man.
-The Zuni believed the blue turquoise was male and of the sky, the green was female and of the earth. Most Zuni fetishes were either made of turquoise or had turquoise properties such as eyes, mouths, or attachments of turquoise to give it more power. Turquoise was powerful and important to most early Indian ceremonials.
-The Rio Grande Pueblos- Most held the turquoise color came from being stolen from the sky and preserved in stone. Their most precious idols were adorned with turquoise. They also employ turquoise for good fortune.
-The Hopi have many traditions regarding turquoise. They, like their Rio Grande Pueblo and Zuni contemporaries adorn their most important fetishes with turquoise to enhance their powers. One legend has turquoise as the excrement of lizards. The lizard is greatly respected for his above-below world connections. They hold that turquoise can hold back the floods. (Floods were a common problem in the desert southwest.)
-The Apache felt turquoise attached to a gun or a bow will cause the weapon to shoot straight. It brought rain and could be found at the end of all rainbows. It was key to the strength of their medicine men.
-The Navajo- Wearing turquoise brings good fortune to the wearer and insures their favor with their Yeis (mediators between man and the supernatural). When thrown into a river with the proper ceremonies it will aid in bringing rain. Turquoise is offered to the Wind Spirit to appease him. The Navajo myth is that when the wind is blowing it is searching for turquoise. The Navajo carve fetishes out of turquoise for increased powers and fortunes. Turquoise is the sacred stone and color of the South and the upper world. The Sacred Mountain of the South, Mt. Taylor near Grants, New Mexico, is made from a mixture of turquoise and earth. The mountains are inhabited by Turquoise Girl. Far to lengthy for this paper, suffice to say, turquoise plays a multitude of roles in healing ceremonies and sand paintings.
The Southwestern Indians use an abundance of turquoise in their jewelry. Some of the turquoise is of exceptional quality and some is not even turquoise. Most range between these extremes.
What is the best turquoise? For more on the intrinsic qualities that make up the "best" as well as other grades and qualities, please review our November 1992 newsletter on Turquoise (see above). But what is the best turquoise for jewelry? Now we proceed along a different path. Lets look at the variables as they apply.
What type of jewelry is desired? If the piece is to be "one of a kind" competition, top investment quality, the turquoise should be gem grade and rare (see November 1992 newsletter). The stone should compliment the artist and the gold or silver work. The turquoise cost per carat can exceed $40.00 per carat.
Very high quality jewelry, equal to that mentioned above and also of investment quality will require gem grade turquoise but not necessarily rare stones. The beauty is there but the cost is not. These stones can cost from $10.00 to $20.00 per carat. On the surface these pieces will be equal in every respect but one- rarity. A breathtakingly beautiful spider web cabochon of Chinese or Tibetan turquoise can cost 75% less than a gem quality piece of Lander or Lone Mountain turquoise for example.
If the goal is to produce, in quantity, high quality jewelry at a price the top 25% of the market can readily afford, then a very high grade to high grade turquoise, properly selected for color, matrix balance, etc. is the goal. Turquoise should cost in the $5.00 to $7.00 per carat range.
The vast majority of jewelry using natural turquoise is made from stones classified as: Jewelry quality, high quality and investment quality (note: good stones, nice luster but not sufficiently hard to preclude long term color change.) These stones are too good to stabilize and should please nearly everyone. Their cost will be $2.00 to $5.00 per carat.
Jewelry that involves the use of many matched cabochons or pieces of inlay nearly always use a good quality turquoise that is stabilized so the color will not change. A beautiful inlay or needle point necklace will loose its appeal if the turquoise near the weavers neck begins to shade toward green because it is absorbing skin oils while the remainder remains sky blue. Good stabilized turquoise is usually sold by the pound as so much is wasted in cutting and grinding. In this work the value of the turquoise is simply part of the value of the art work and over all material cost for the piece.
Good to average quality , mine run, and stock qualities of turquoise are stabilized and used for carving and craft shop jewelry. By and large this is an extremely valuable area economically. It is estimated that over 70% of the Indian crafts persons use this type turquoise either individually or as a shop worker. The result is a beautifully balanced piece and remarkably low priced for the craftsmanship involved. This is the quality of turquoise that created the Indian jewelry market as we know it today. This stone is sold for approximately $80.00 per troy pound but better color can double this.
The lowest qualities, chalk, chip stock and bulk must be stabilized to be used. Often this turquoise is "color shot." In other words, artificially colored. Much of this is used for assembly line manufacturing, machine stamped work, etc. It too has a place in the market. It is sterling silver, it is turquoise and it portrays the "Santa Fe look" at a remarkably low price. Many collectors get their start here, liking the look and becoming interested in the whole field. As they learn more their tastes change, almost always upward. This type of turquoise is $20.00 to $30.00 a pound.
Fake and synthetic turquoise is often found in "Indian" jewelry made overseas- It too is available in the United States and some of the Indians use it. It has a place in the market also as long as its looked at as art and craftsmanship. Look at the jewelry as you would a painting. Don't look for material value.. only the value of the art... the creation. Its cost on the market is approximately that of the chip stock or bulk stabilized turquoise that is discussed above.
As you can see, turquoise values range dramatically and it is not always easy to apply a value even though it is easy to establish a cost. In other words value often exceeds cost because of the art work/craftsmanship involved. Sometimes turquoise must be viewed as one does an oil painting. The individual components have little or no value individually but as a whole the art work has significant value.
The History of Turquoise
Turquoise has captivated man's imagination for centuries. When it came to the attention of man is unknown. We have archeological as well as literary references that pre date the Christian era by five millennia. The four bracelets of Queen Zar, found on her mummified arm, date to the second ruler of the Egypt's First Dynasty, approximately 5500 B.C. Although not specifically mentioned in the Bible, scholars believe that the robe worn by the high priest Aaron was adorned with turquoise. Aristotle, Pliny and others refer to stones that must have been turquoise. After the fourth or fifth century A.D., many writings appeared discussing the stone. Explorers such as Marco Polo took time to write about it.Turquoise was likely found and used by early man. Certainly the prehistoric peoples of the Western hemisphere knew of the turquoise as we have found pieces in burial and archeological sites throughout the two continents. The Anastasia and Hohokam mined turquoise throughout our Southwest. Absolute evidence exists that these prehistoric people mined turquoise at Cerillos and the Burro Mountains of New Mexico, Kingman and Morenci in Arizona and the Conejos areas of Colorado. Turquoise was a popular trade item as so much has been found in archeological sites many hundreds of miles away from its source. A prime example is the Cerillos, New Mexico, turquoise found with the Aztecs.
It seems clear that turquoise was always considered a stone of life and good fortune and it even had healing properties. Many people from around the world found uses for turquoise in numerous ways. To mention a few: EGYPT- the earliest known use of turquoise and the first mines on the Sinai are known to have occurred with this civilization. Queen Zar's jewelry in 5500 B.C. has been mentioned. It had mystical powers and was used in Egyptian art, figures and ornaments. PERSIA- the legendary home of the world's finest turquoise, the mines are at Nishapur. Turquoise became a major trade and barter item for the early Persians. Persian turquoise was found in ancient graves in Turkistan, and in the first to third century A.D., in graves throughout the Caucausus. Persian stones were much coveted in Afghanistan, and as far north as Siberia. It was used in art, medicine, as well as in jewelry in INDIA. TIBET- also has their own source of turquoise usually a green cast, very hard stone. It has a significant amount of spider webbing. Turquoise was a highly revered item to the Tibetans who ranked them in six grades, the most expensive valued well above gold. Every Tibetan wore or carried a piece of turquoise throughout life. Turquoise was used for currency in many areas of Tibet. MONGOLIA- their knowledge of turquoise likely came from Tibet and China. It became immensely popular. CHINA- The history of turquoise in China dates to the thirteenth century A.D. Although mining did exist, most stone came from trade with the Persians, Turks, Tibetans, and the Mongols. Much Chinese turquoise was used for carving and in other art and decorative ways. It never became a precious stone for the Chinese as was Jade for example. Turquoise was unknown until the 18th Century in JAPAN. Turquoise was not of great import in early and medieval EUROPE. However, as Asian conquests of, and incursions into, Europe occurred the European's familiarity with turquoise increased. It became more popular during and following the Renaissance. Turquoise, as mentioned earlier, was a very important item to the early inhabitants of both NORTH and SOUTH AMERICA. The stone was used in religion, art, trade, treaty negotiations as well as for jewelry. It was considered by some to be associated with life itself.
A brief note on its medical uses. These varied from land to land and age to age. It was thought to prevent injury through accident, prevent blindness (by placing perfect stones over the eyes or ground into a salve) and, as a powder, it was ingested to cure stomach disorders, internal bleeding and stings from snakes and scorpions. It found its way into the mystic arts. Its color could forecast good or bad, predict the weather and influence dreams. It was good for nearly every ailment to include insanity. As a good luck talisman it found usage in nearly every culture.
Origin and Occurrence of Turquoise
Turquoise consists of the chemical elements copper, aluminum, phosphorus, hydrogen, and oxygen in the form of water. Thus it is described as a "hydrous basic aluminum phosphate of copper." It is also described as "hydrous aluminum phosphate colored by copper salts." Its chemical formula is: (CuAl6 (PO4)8 4H2O)Note: with much variance. This molecular structure permits the inclusion of other materials, principally Iron (Fe), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Manganese (Mn), Silicon (Si), and Zinc (Zn). These additional elements when incorporated in the molecular structure of turquoise influence its color and hardness. More on this later.All of the above must come from the proper minerals being present in a finite area which must be geologically broken down from the areas rocks, dissolved, transported, and deposited in the proper concentrations in spaces, cracks, openings and hollows in subsurface rocks. It also must so remain in these "host" rocks for millions of years above the water table. One must understand that over these enormous periods of time mountains rise and wear away and seas form and disappear. In order to have a specific grouping of minerals remain collocated over such a period of time and then to have them undergo the proper pressures and temperatures to form turquoise is quite remarkable.
Turquoise deposits usually occur in areas with some volcanic or thermal history. Volcanic rocks such as phyolite and trachyte contain the larger percentage of turquoise formation. This is followed by intrusive rock formation with metamorphic and sedimentary rocks being the least likely to contain turquoise. That is not to say that turquoise has not been found in areas without igneous or volcanic activity. Turquoise has been found in the Sinai and in Australia. In these two areas it is found in sandstone and shale.
Most turquoise is found in "alteration zones," areas where the native, original rocks have been altered through the intrusion of other rocks from some volcanic or other thermal influence. The hydrothermal alteration is created by magmatic solutions from deep in the earth being forced to the surface through fractures or pores which eventually change the original rocks. This is due to the intense heat and chemical change thus associated between the new and the original rocks. All this, coupled with the long weathering of the surface rocks through wind and water and the resultant chemical breakdown of these rocks, creates the environment necessary for turquoise to form.
One other key geological activity is called silicification. It too is an act of hydrothermal and intrusive alteration. Here silica, which is a common associate of turquoise, is introduced into the turquoise deposit. This addition in periods of intense heat is responsible for the hardness of the turquoise and frequently the matrix as well.
The several steps and contingencies necessary to create turquoise are as follows. First there must be a source of copper. This occurs in a rather limited number of areas in the world. One must have a source of phosphorus collocated with the copper, usually from the mineral, apatite, which in turn is restricted to certain rocks not all of which are associated with copper. There must also be feldspar for the aluminum. There must be a deep hydrothermal alteration which breaks down the feldspars and frees the aluminum needed for the turquoise. The phosphorus usually comes from phosphoric acid leached from the apatite. The copper is usually introduced into the "host" rocks by the rising hot magma. The copper readily oxidizes near the surface and when in solution it reacts freely with the aluminum and phosphoric acid to form turquoise. At this time other minerals enter into the turquoise structure and create color variations.
Turquoise creation is affected by many other contingencies. For example; the best, hardest turquoise is found within 100 feet of the earth's surface (there are instances to the contrary - Lone Mountain for example.) Why? Well, as turquoise sits in its pocket waiting for someone to mine it, it is subject to the elements. If it's near the surface, it "dries out." It is less subject to the acids created by water percolating through the earth and is less likely to "soften" or become more porous because of this. As it "dries" it hardens. Deeper formations are generally softer. Some, like the Lone Mountain Mine in Nevada have faulted to the side so tunneling along the vein was very productive even though it's well below 100 feet in depth. Turquoise in this mine formed near the surface before faulting. Undoubtedly many similar formations have been lost forever due to the convolutions of the earth sending the deposits deep into the earth's crust.
Physical Properties
Turquoise is opaque and has a Mohs scale hardness that varies remarkably. The soft, deeply mined chalks may only slightly exceed 2 on the Mohs scale to 6 for a hard, gem specimen. The hardness varies due to several factors. Environment and matrix are key. In silica, usually very minute quartz particles are present (see silicification discussed above); the stone will be hard enough for use as a gem stone. This process will strengthen some of the matrixes as well. If silicification has not occurred the turquoise will likely be chalky, porous, and soft. It will not be usable in jewelry without undergoing treatment- usually stabilization (to be discussed later.)The specific gravity of turquoise is 2.6 to 2.8, about the same as quartz. Of course, when some minerals replace other minerals the specific gravity will change.
Color- The color of turquoise can vary from a deep blue to a deep green, with every variation of color in-between. This is due to the chemical composition of the turquoise. Generally, the more copper in the molecule the bluer the turquoise. The introduction of iron causes the greener cast to the stone. Turquoise specimens from various mines have been analyzed to determine their chemical compositions. Generally these analyses support this color change generalization. Turquoise can also change color naturally, usually toward the green. Again, the more moisture available will cause turquoise to turn toward green. This can occur in the ground or in jewelry absorbing moisture, oils, and other properties. This is not unlike blue azurite changing to green malachite as its creation environment increases its water content. Man too can change the color of turquoise artificially by submerging the stone in animal fat (done for centuries simply to make it prettier- as well as to add to its value in trade.) Wetting the stone in water immediately prior to sale makes the color more pronounced and the stone heavier- both of these techniques, however are temporary. We will discuss prominent color change later in this paper.
Remember although turquoise must consist of copper, aluminum and phosphorus. Other elements can replace various percentages of these and thereby change the molecular structure. For example, two very rare minerals, chalcosiderite (where iron replaces the aluminum) and faustite (where zinc replaces the aluminum) do exist in turquoise environments. However, more frequently there will be a partial replacement of the aluminum with iron and zinc, thus leaving turquoise altered only in color, specific gravity and of course, chemical composition. Most turquoise is concentrated near the copper-aluminum end of this spectrum then toward the iron or zinc-aluminum end. Therefore, most turquoise is blue or blue-green then green or green-blue as would be the case if iron would be more prevalent. The following may shed some light on the vast differences in the molecular structure of turquoise. A great many variables can and do exist in this stone and it is sill turquoise. No one factor makes it more or less valuable.
A series of chemical tests were conducted on the turquoise from 21 different mines in several countries. There were marked differences in the composition of the oxides forming the turquoise in these tests. For example: Copper reflected a low of 1.4% in a Persian mine to a high a 9% in Virginia; Phosphorus was low at 14% in the Persian test and 39% in Jordan; Aluminum varied from a low of 29% in New Mexico's Cerillos mine to a high of 54% in Jordan. There were 10 U.S. samples. They averaged: Copper, 4%-9%, Phosphorus, 27%-34% and Aluminum, 29%-44%. The tests for iron ranged from none in three mines to 7.8% in Persia. U.S. mines ranged from 1.2% to 4.4%. Water, a key element of course, averaged 18% in all mines. (This is information from Pogue. [Ref. #1])
These tests, if nothing else, show just how complex a mined turquoise is. It simply does not always follow the accepted generalizations. An example of this is that the tests show that a Persian mine noted for its blue turquoise had the lowest copper and highest iron content. This appears to contradict the generalization that bluer stones contain more copper. The tests did reveal traces of other oxides and these too have an effect on color. Lastly, these tests were conducted many years ago and we know today that ore samples from a single mine can vary rather markedly.
Natural, Stabilized, Treated, Fake and Synthetic Turquoise
NATURAL- This turquoise comes directly from the mine. It is cut, shaped, polished and set into jewelry. Perhaps it had only been drilled and polished and suspended on a necklace. In any event the stone has had no man-made treatment or additives other than the polishing compounds to set off its luster. Most stones used in their natural state are very good to gem quality. In other words, hard and dense with an inherent luster that does not lessen as it is exposed to its natural setting. STABILIZED- This is a natural turquoise, usually in nugget form, that is too porous or soft to hold a luster. It is therefore submerged into a stabilizing compound, frequently an epoxy resin. The natural capillary action of the porous stone draws this stabilizing compound throughout the stone. It is then dried. When it is thoroughly dried it can be cut, drilled, cabbed, etc. and prepared for jewelry. Please note that the turquoise has not been altered. The pores of the stone have been filled with a clear resin that makes the stone usable. If this type of turquoise were not on the market, many, many jewelry artisans would not be employed. It allows wide diversity. For example, necklaces of tiny turquoise beads now can be made and tiny inlay is possible. Colors will not change because the pores are sealed. It is not practical to use a high-grade natural stone for heishe. For example, too much turquoise is wasted in the grinding and the resultant bead will be fragile and will eventually change color as well.
On the other hand, some stabilizing compounds can have color added. This causes the turquoise to assume a color that is not naturally inherent to that stone. This is referred to as "color shot" or "color stabilized", the latter is misleading because it infers that it is the natural color which is "stabilized." This of course is not true, color has been added. This is not necessarily bad, as jewelry making is art, this color enhancement can improve the appearance of the piece. It goes without saying that the value is less than if the turquoise was naturally the color desired.
TREATED- This form of color enhancement has existed for thousands of years. In Pogue's excellent treatise he discusses writings on this subject that pre-date Christ. A common way is to submerge the stone in any animal or vegetable oil and later air dry it. It will have a luster that did not previously exist. This will not last for a very long time and the likelihood of oil stains when being worn caused the seller to leave the area shortly after the sale. Even today turquoise merchants submerge the stone in water, it enhances the color and makes it weigh more.
FAKE and SYNTHETIC Turquoise- People have been faking turquoise for centuries using ceramics, bone, color-enhanced minerals, and more recently, celluloid and plastic, among other things. This is not much of a problem now as people are simply too familiar with turquoise. However, synthetic turquoise, frequently chemically perfect, has appeared on the market in some quantity. This is literally stove-top turquoise. It has a very natural matrix created by placing stones in the "batter" or sprinkling in pyrite, etc. When the mix is cut then cabbed these foreign additives, which are real, add to the illusion that the entire stone is natural. Synthetics become fake if not properly identified.
Turquoise Quality
One could write pages on this and still not cover the subject. In the earliest of times, up to the late 1800's, certainly the pure blue without matrix was considered the best. It was time tested, if the color did not change it was of "the old rock", in other words... gem! If it changed color it was "the new rock", inferior and not of permanent color. While the pure blue stone could be of gem quality the matrixed stone was not considered a gem stone. This all changed in the late 19th century. The American Indian preferred the matrixed stone and so an entire new grading criteria evolved.Today, the preferred turquoise in the Middle East is still the pure blue. As such, great quantities of rather inferior stabilized "chalk" turquoise has been shipped there for sale to local jewelers and merchants. I've had people bring me pieces they bought in bazaars and markets as old Persian or Arab jewelry that were made from Kingman stabilized turquoise..BE WARE...
GRADING TURQUOISE in the U.S.
1) Hardness of Density. . . This is a critical feature in determining the grade of a turquoise specimen. An inferior chalk-like turquoise will feel light, it will be porous and it will stick to your tongue. The harder, denser pieces will have a "good" substantive feel to them. They will not draw the quantity of moisture from your tongue that lower grades will but some adhesion to your tongue will be felt. As it's density increases so too does its hardness. As turquoise can vary from a little over 2 to nearly 6 on the Mohs scale, the specific gravity will also vary, the usual being 2.8, similar to that of quartz.2) Luster... it should come from within the stone not just a surface polish.
3) Color...No area is less codified than this. The ancients preferred blue because a gem-grade blue stone would not change color (King Tut's treasures include a substantial amount of blue turquoise -- it appears today unchanged). As the less hard blues would eventually shade towards green, it was assumed that green was not as good. Time has proven this wrong. Some green hued turquoise such as Skyhorse, China Mountain (both are names given to turquoise from China), Cerillos, Blue Gem, Fox, to name a few are ranked in the top three grades (see below) are as many blues, ie. Lander, Lone Mountain, Red Mountain, Morenci, Bisbee, etc. And to make matters even more difficult some mining areas such as Skyhorse, China Mountain, Blue Gem, and Royston produce both colors.
4) Matrix.. This is the host rock in which the turquoise forms and bonds. When cut, the host rock and the turquoise are one piece. The pattern of this matrix must be pleasing. This is subjective at best but with experience one learns what most people believe to be the most desirable. Again, as in color, the opinions on which matrix is "best" varies dramatically. There are hard core supporters of a fine, dark spider web as in the Lander, Number Eight, Lone Mountain, Red Mountain, Sky horse, and China Mountain mines. The heavy brown black matrix of Bisbee and Tyrone have their followers as the world's best. A hard, lustrous cabochon from Morenci typifies another beautiful and highly regarded matrix. It is free form with a blending of webbing and deep pattern matrix combined with visible pyrite inclusions.
In a given cabochon of turquoise any of the above could qualify as "best" depending on the personal preferences of the one judging. However, when mounted in jewelry then the balance of the turquoise in the setting by itself or in combination with other stones is an important consideration.
5) Rarity...People covet that which is rare and the value escalates accordingly. A stone from a mine that produced a highly collectible stone that has subsequently closed has more appeal to a collector then a stone from an active mine. Again, factors 1,2,3,4 above MUST also apply. The rarity factor is simply the price discriminator. Example -- A beautiful five carat cabochon of deep blue turquoise with a tiny black spider web matrix from the Lander Mine, Nevada (closed many years ago) has a retail value of $300.00 to $500.00. A similar cabochon from the Lone Mountain Mine, also closed, would be $200.00 to $300.00. It is every bit as good and in the case of the matrix better, but it produced for a longer time. A similar cabochon from the "Sky horse Mine" a term used to identify a superior grade of turquoise from Tibet and China would be nearer $50.00 because it is still active and the turquoise has yet to be properly publicized.
GRADES Again, a subjective area but the following are accepted by a good many in the trade:
1) Gem: For a stone to be considered a gem all of the above criteria must be met except the rarity factor. Less then 1% of all turquoise can be legitimately called Gem. Remember- rarity affects value, not natural quality.2) Very High Grade: Stones of this grade are nearly perfect and exhibit the same general characteristics as gem except that the matrix patterns may not be perfectly balanced but the stone would still be quite hard and quite lustrous. About 3% of all turquoise is very high grade.
3) High Grade: Turquoise of this grade is used in most high but not competition quality jewelry. It is hard but "as hard," balanced but not perfect, a very attractive specimen that could be just a bit better. Luster must be perfect. About 5% of turquoise fits this grade.
4) a) Jewelry Quality b) High Quality c) Investment Quality NOTE: Word "grades" is omitted. It should have a good hardness, a good feel, and be hard enough not to need stabilization. It must have a nice luster but not necessarily be as deep as in 1-3 above. Matrix pattern should be attractive but probably a bit unbalanced. This stone could be stabilized to prevent any color change but it is not necessary to do so as it will change slowly and remain attractive none the less. Approximately 10% of turquoise is in this category.
5) a) Mine Run b) Average Quality c) Good Quality d) Stock This is a very average turquoise that doesn't have to be stabilized as it will hold a polish and it will be attractive. Stabilizing however, strengthens it for carving and permanence. We estimate that about 20% of turquoise is in this category. In these areas stabilizing improves the stone.
6) a) Chalk b) Bulk c) Chip Stock d) "Levarite" (as in leave it right there) Soft, porous, brittle, of little value to the jewelry industry until stabilized. Frequently insufficient color exists so "color enhancing" or "color shooting" is used, i.e. the turquoise is artificially colored. Most turquoise is in this category. One reason is, mines are going deeper into the earth and the further down one goes the lower the quality of turquoise. NOTE: The above percentage should not be taken as exact. They are a "best guess" based on this writer's experiences over 25 years in the trade.
Conclusion
Turquoise is considered a precious stone. At one time in history superior specimens
were valued by weight, more than gold. Today it ranges from a few cents per carat
(chalk) to over $50.00 per carat for a superb gem stone. It is widely regarded
as our nation's "national stone." Man has coveted, romanced,
fought for, and owned with pride this remarkable stone.
Recommended Readings and Bibliography for this article.
1. Joseph E. Poque, Ph.D, The Turquoise, A report to the National
Academy of Science, Vol XII, Second and Third Memoir, 1915- Reprinted in 1974
by Rio Grande Press, Inc., Glorieta,NM (This reprint includes a forward and
details on Southwestern Turquoise Mines by Rex Arrowsmith.) 2. The International
Turquoise Annuals, Vol. I and II, 1975 and 1976 (only two published) Impart
Pub, Reno,NV., Note in Vol. I the article on pages 31-55 by D. Allen Penick,
"Turquoise, the Mineral that's an Accident." 3. Stuart A. Northrop,
Turquoise and Spanish Mines in New Mexico, University of New Mexico, Press,
1975 4. M.G. Brown, Blue Gold, The Turquoise Story, Main Street Press,
Anaheim, CA 1975 5. Sturart A. Northrop, David L. Newman, David H. Snow,
Turquoise, reprinted by General Printing and Paper Co., Topeka, KS. A reprint
from El Palacio, Vol. 79, No. 1, 1973, Museum of New Mexico. NOTE:
An excellent reference list is included in Rex Arrowsmiths forward to the Pogue
Report, above More Turquoise Info! Prized for its sky-blue
color, turquoise has been used in amulets and jewelry since antiquity. The oldest
known piece of jewelry is a turquoise and gold bracelet found in the tomb of
Zer, an Egyptian queen who lived 7,500 years ago. Turquoise is an anglicized
version of turkois, which is French for "Turkey stone." Originally
mined in Persia (now Iran), turquoise arrived in Europe via Turkey, hence the
name. Persian turquoise is noted for the purity of its blue color and experts
regard it as the finest of all turquoise. Most turquoise today comes from China,
Mexico and the United States; it's no longer mined in Iran. Depending upon its
origin, turquoise may vary in color from pale blue to bright green. Although
pure sky blue is regarded as best by many people, there is no ideal color. Each
hue has its devotees. Turquoise is found close to the surface in arid climates.
Phosphate and aluminum combine to form turquoise when surface waters seep into
underlying rocks. The blue comes from small amounts of copper, while iron impurities
yield a greenish color. Although sometimes found in veins, turquoise most often
occurs as nuggets. The rock in which turquoise is formed is called a matrix.
Turquoise with parts of the rock still embedded in it is called matrix turquoise.
Nuggets may also contain small bits (inclusions) of pyrite or other minerals.
Iron oxide forms a webbed pattern of fine lines, leading to the name "spiderweb"
turquoise. Veining or a mottled appearance in the stone is from the uneven distribution
of copper. Natural turquoise is turquoise which has had nothing done to it that
changes or preserves the color, hardens or protects the surface or makes it
easier to work with. It's usually just polished and placed in a setting. Because
it is porous, natural turquoise is absorbent. Perfumes, cosmetics, and perspiration
can cause it to change color or become dull. Excessive heat will destroy turquoise.
It's also a very soft stone that requires care in wearing. Turquoise is frequently
treated in several ways, some of which are nearly undetectable, even by experts.
Treating turquoise often preserves the color and protects the stone. It also
salvages otherwise unusable stones. Artificial, imitation and synthetic turquoise
are also on the market. As with treated turquoise, buying these is only a problem
if you think you're buying natural stones. The most common treatments are stabilization
and enhancement. Most stabilized turquoise has been impregnated with clear plastic.
Stabilized turquoise is no longer porous or subject to color changes. It also
allows holes to be drilled in nuggets or beads for stringing. If a dye is added
to the plastic, then the turquoise is enhanced. Both stabilization and enhancement
are permanent, unless wax was used rather than plastic. Thin pieces of turquoise
may be backed with epoxy or artificial matrix to add thickness or strength.
Done well, the backing is impossible to detect once the stone is set; however,
it may dissolve if cleaned in certain solvents. Other, less-desirable treatments
include dipping the stone in oil to temporarily improve the color, using black
shoe polish to create "matrix" or "spiderwebbing" or using
epoxy to fill holes or create "pyrite" inclusions. Dyed howlite may
be sold as "turquosite." Gilson turquoise is a high-quality synthetic.
There are few nondestructive ways to test turquoise. Heat and chemicals will
destroy or damage both natural and treated turquoise. Your best defense is to
buy from reputable dealers and ask lots of questions. Ancient people wore turquoise
to protect them from a multitude of misfortunes, including disease, poison and
snakes. It was especially used to protect horseback riders from falls. Many
believed that turquoise had the power to attract love, wealth and beauty to
those who wore it. Silver jewelry has always played an important role
in Navajo ceremonial life. To the Southwest Indians silver and turquoise were
the finest form of personal adornment. Jewelry was valued both for its spiritual
symbolism, for its beauty, for imparting beauty to the wearer and as a sign
of wealth. In the past, as well as today, jewelry was an asset that had a known
value and could be held by a trader to gain credit for dry goods, exchanged
for religious and medical services or traded for livestock. As trading posts
came into being after the United States government established reservations,
many Navajos would "pawn" their jewelry when they needed to buy goods.
Very little cash was available and silversmiths and weavers were paid for the
most part in store goods. When the Navajo earned enough money to redeem their
jewelry, the trading post would return the piece(s) to them. Jewelry that was
never redeemed was sold as authentic Navajo jewelry and was referred to as "pawn."
Styles/ Symbols and Meaning: Because the Navajo borrowed ideas from the Spanish,
Mexicans and the Plains Indians they were able to adopt aspects of these other
cultures and make these borrowed traits their own. The were able to bring the
disparate elements together into a harmonious whole and fairly consistent styles
began to emerge. How did the Navajo learn silversmithing? While it is
thought that the Navajo borrowed the styles of the naja, concha and metal covered
bridles from the Plains Indians and early Spanish conquistadores, they learned
the techniques of silversmithing from the Spanish and Mexican silverworkers.
Early Techniques: Early Indian silversmiths followed the same process
that the Mexican blacksmiths used to produce ironwork. It is not known exactly
when the Navajo began to work silver but most scholars place the time around
1850. A Mexican silversmith named Nakai Tsosi taught the craft to Atsidi Sani,
the first Navajo to learn silversmithing. Tools and silver were scarce in early
Northern New Mexico. Therefore, these first Indian silversmiths (mostly men)
hammered shapes out of silver primarily using melted down coins. They cut the
shapes with a cold chisel, shaped them with a file and decorated them with a
file, stamps and occasional rocker-engraving. The year 1868 marks the beginning
of what we call the first phase (or classic style) of Southwest Indian jewelry.
Today many women are silversmiths.
During the earliest period of silver making (classic period or first phase)
the form of silver pieces and also their decoration came to have special symbolic
significance. The colors of certain stones, such as turquoise and coral, and
the use of four decorative elements in a design became associated with the cardinal
directions. (Quadrantal symmetry is a way of describing cardinal orientation
or the importance of the four directions.) The cardinal directions are prominent
features of Navajo beliefs about the creation of the world and the origin of
the Navajo people. Division of the world into quadrants, each associated with
a specific mountain on the periphery of Navajo territory, brought order out
of chaos and implies a center point at which north-south and east-west axes
intersect and which is a part of both axes and all four directions. This center
point can be described as a point which goes beyond the limits of all concrete
things and dualities and is in perfect harmony and totality. Dualities such
as double or paired forms suggested the relationship of earth and sky, hot and
cold, material or immaterial. Six elements, for example a row of six stones,
echoed the six inner forms of the sacred mountains. In this way a variety of
silver objects from necklaces and belts to canteens and bridles express a distinctively
Navajo art form or style with distinctly Navajo symbols and meaning.
What is Turquoise?
The name for turquoise comes from an old French word meaning "Turkish,"
because turquoise was originally imported into Europe through Turkey. This miraculous
gem of blue and green is technically a hydrated basic phosphate of copper and
aluminum (cuprous aluminum phosphate), along with some iron, calcium and silica.
The typical scientific formula is CuAl6 (PO4)4 (OH)8 * 5H20. The blue and green
colors of turquoise are determined by its copper content. More quantity of copper
produces blue while more quantity of iron produces green. Turquoise mines produce
a wide variety of turquoise which may vary from dark blue to white in color.
Turquoise is a mineral that can be called a fluke of nature. Many geologic events
must come together to create just one thin vein of turquoise. It is the product
of an incalculable number of chemical and physical processes that must take
place in just the right combination and proper environment for over hundreds
of thousands - possibly millions - of years. The southwest region of the United
States is an ideal environment for turquoise which is generally found at high
elevations in arid regions, in copper deposits. Compared to other gem stones,
turquoise is relatively soft. The most porous forms (and therefore low-grade
forms) of turquoise are called "chalk." Better quality turquoise is
harder. (Because many of the stones are soft, porous and pale, they are today
often injected with plastic resins and dyes to produce intensely colored "stabilized"
turquoise. This artificial turquoise is made from plastic or from turquoise
powder mixed with a plastic binder. Jewelry made of beads or stones crafted
from stabilized turquoise have little worth. There is a limited quantity of
natural turquoise of good color and hardness that can be cut and polished to
a shiny luster and that is highly valued. This is the stone that is used in
fine quality Indian jewelry and that is found in the necklaces pictured here.
Turquoise is found in surrounding rock and extraneous material from the "mother"
rock and from other foreign minerals and materials (such as the copper, calcium,
iron and silica) become incorporated in the turquoise deposits at an early stage
and then permanently enmeshed in the final hardened vein of blue or green stone.
This foreign material is called "matrix" and is what makes the turquoise
from the Southwestern United States unique. New Mexico's gem-quality turquoise
is world renowned. Symbolism: Meaning of Turquoise
Turquoise has a variety of meanings for all of the Pueblo Peoples. Turquoise
is most often associated with the sky. It has religious significance as an offering
and a fetish. It is associated with sacred personages. There are several language
groups to which the different Pueblo People belong. Among the Tewa it is called
"Turquoise Woman" or "Turquoise Mother." At Zuni Pueblo,
turquoise has a male association to the person of Turquoise Boy. It was used
as a trade good. It is an important symbol of wealth, a gift between humans
and spiritual beings as well as a gift from human to human. It has an association
with directions. For the Hopi, Zuni, Keresan, Jemez and Tewa peoples, its association
is with the North; however, for the Tiwa peoples of Taos, Picuris, Sandia and
Isleta, it relates to the South. Finally, all Pueblo Peoples believe that turquoise
has the power to make someone or something attractive or desirable to others
in this world or in some other world. The use of turquoise as a bead strung
on cotton, vegetal fibers, sinew or rawhide predates by hundreds of years the
use of turquoise with silver. Artifacts from over two hundred prehistoric mines
suggest that Native Americans have mined turquoise for close to two thousand
years. More than half a million turquoise stones have been found at Pueblo Bonito,
one of the Great Houses in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, an Anasazi archeological
site. Cerrillos (which is Spanish for "little hills") mines in New
Mexico supplied the majority of turquoise before the arrival of the Spanish.
Turquoise was most likely traded for parrot feathers and copper bells, two things
found in archaeological sites of the Southwest which would not be naturally
from the area.
What is coral?
Coral is formed from the hard outer skeletons of tiny animals called polyps.
Until about 200 years ago, people thought that coral polyps were plants. In
fact, they are related to sea anemones and jelly fish. Most polyps are only
about 1/4 inch (5mm) across. Hard corals live in huge colonies and are reef-building.
The tiny, one-celled algae that live inside the polyps' bodies help them secrete
limestone. This cements the reef together. Soft corals do not have stony outer
skeletons. The stony, cuplike casings built by hard coral polyps protect their
soft bodies. The casings are made from chemicals that the polyp extracts from
seawater. Corals grow in an amazing variety of beautiful shapes and patterns,
creating fantastic formations. Some look like miniature trees or mushrooms,
dinner plates, or feathers. The way a coral grows depends on its species, how
it copes with the battering of waves, and the space and sunlight it receives.
Coral is not found in any of the oceans of the Americas. Therefore any coral
that is used in necklaces would have come to the Americas through trade after
the Spanish Conquistadores arrived in 1521. Spiny oyster has a color similar
to the color of the coral beads found in this necklace. It is found on coastlines
of the Americas. Spiny oyster is principally made of calcium and could have
been drilled with a sharp stone such as obsidian.
THE ANASAZI HISTORY
The Anasazi were the prehistoric Indians who inhabited the Four Corners area
(southeastern Utah, northeastern Arizona, southwestern Colorado and northwestern
New Mexico) for a 2,000 year period from about 700 B.C. to the time of the arrival
of the Spanish in the southwest. Since there was no written language, what we
know of the Anasazi is what we can learn from artifacts or objects that remain
today and from the ruins of their early pueblos. Their jewelry consisted of
pendants, beads and buttons made from attractive stone materials, from bone
and even from rare pieces of shell traded all the way from the Pacific Coast
of the United States. By 1450, the ancestral Pueblo People had regrouped
into three regions further south - the Hopi mesas, Zuni territory, and the Upper
Rio Grande. These were the Pueblo People encountered by the Spanish in the 16th
century. They continue to live there today. Pueblo People today are lawyers,
teachers, secretaries, doctors, writers, artists, laborers and politicians.
Many live on the pueblo, but some live in towns and cities. Many continue to
participate in Pueblo life and ceremonies.
CULTURE
Beliefs/ Religion of the Pueblo Peoples (Then and today)
In each of the languages spoken by the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, there is
no specific word for art or religion. These are simply part of the proper way
to live one's life. Concern for the well-being of one's community and family
is of primary importance. Reverence for Mother Earth and her People cannot be
separated from everyday life.
STONES USED IN INDIAN JEWELRY
CORAL
Coral is a calcium carbonate combined with magnesium. It is created by colonies
of the marine coral polyp. Originally, the best red coral came from the Mediterranean,
but pollution and over harvesting has greatly reduced that source. Today most
top quality intense red coral comes from the Sea of Japan. It is sometimes referred
to as "Mora coral". Generally, the deeper the color the higher the
value, but this must be tempered by the presence, if any, of impurities, holes,
fissures, etc. Also, the pink colored delicate"angel skin" coral and
a creamy orange shade of coral have been popular and the highest grades of these
are also expensive. The highest grades of "ox blood" (intense red)
coral can easily be $80 per carat and higher for the more rare large pieces.
Coral should never be subjected to liquid cleaning solvents, nor extreme heat.
It can turn white.
SUGILITE
Sugilite is an alkali of iron, aluminum, manganese, lithium and water. It ranges
from a yellow-brown in Japan to a beautiful deep purple from the Kalahari Desert
in southern Africa. It is this latter that is used in jewelry. Sugilite has
been registered as trade names: Royal Azul and Royal Lavulite. This stone ranges
from an attractive light purple with deeper purple inclusions to a gem grade
that can best be described as solid "grape jelly". Values range from
a few dollars for the lighter shades to $80 a carat for the stones with the
deepest and purest color. Also, like coral, larger cabachons of the highest
grade are quite scarce and prices for these are even higher. Please note: sugilite
can be confused with the very beautiful, and also purple, spiney oyster shell
(Spondylous princips). A magnifying glass will reveal "lines" in the
spiney oyster shell specimen. Also, a scratch test with a needle or sharp knife
will easily be seen on spiney oyster shell, but not on sugilite. Suglilite can
also be confused with charoite, which is discussed below.
CHAROITE
This popular purple stone is only found near the Chara River in Eastern Siberia.
It is a calcium potassium silicate found with deposits of tinaksite (orange),
augite (black) and feldspar (white). The range of color is extensive. When prepared
in jewelry-ready cabachons, a deep "glittering" crystalline effect
is noticeable. This stone is quite lovely in all it's manifestations, but becomes
more valuable as the deeper purple intensifies and becomes increasingly dominant
in the cabachon. The stone was first discovered and considered for jewelry use
in 1976. It is still rather inexpensive, ranging from $2 to $4 a carat up to
$20 a carat for the deeper colors. This too will change as more jewelers begin
to see its beauty. In this regard, Indian silversmiths, such as Bruce Hodgins,
are taking a leading role. GASPEITE Gaspeite is a light, very soft and pleasing
green stone that is a nickel carbonate colored by iron and magnesium. It is
found on the Gaspe' Peninsula in Canada, hence the name. Most, however, is mined
as a bi-product of nickel mines in western Australia. Gaspeite is similar in
hue to Pixie and Damale turquoise and a recent shade of green from the Carico
Lake turquoise mine in Lander County, Nevada. Also, some shades of varasite
are quite similar to gaspeite. The stone is used as a cabachon in jewelry and
as attractive color accents in silver and gold inlay and channel inlay. It's
value is, at the moment, fairly uniform at about $5 to $8 a carat. This will
undoubtedly increase.
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